Mastabas are also made of limestone and mud brick. Everything that I have found convinces me more and more that indeed it is this society that built the Sphinx and the Pyramids. Heres why each season begins twice. So you're rotated back, but you're not the same. It looks smells and tastes like natural limestone, says Barsoum. Eight workers have died on that project. Slaves appear to have lived relatively well despite the harsh conditions because of their ration of food. sign up for the weekly bbc.com features newsletter. In Egypt, it is not uncommon for workers to receive honors that are not accorded to others. To help make these precious resources accessible to all, Der Manuelian heads the Giza Archives Project, an enormous collection of Giza photographs, plans, drawings, manuscripts, object records, and expedition diaries that enables virtual visits to the plateau. They were, in fact, some of the largest and most elaborate structures ever constructed. The pyramids are now accessible to the general public, allowing visitors to examine the inner workings of these incredible monuments. It took just 110,000 tonnes of concrete and 39,000 tonnes of steel to construct the Burj, which is more than six times the height of the Great Pyramid. About 20 percent of that increase will be converted into useful work, which amounts to about 450 kilojoules a day (different assumptions are possible, but they would make no fundamental difference). The Step Pyramid of Djoser, constructed at Saqqara about 4,700 years ago, was the first pyramid the Egyptians ever built. These are the hugest things. From roughly 2550 to 2490 B.C., a frantic period of construction saw the construction of all three Gizas famous and elaborate burial complexes. The method of construction of the pyramid is being investigated by historians. The Great Pyramid of Giza is constructed by Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops). Many of them had settled in villages that were just as large as these massive structures. Was it a militaristic kind of state WPA project? Every day, 340 stones are delivered, and 34 stones are delivered every hour within a ten-hour period, right? You see, to me it's even more fascinating that they did this. These animals can sniff it out. I will take them personally to the rooms. In 1974, Kurt Mendelssohn, a German-born British physicist, put the labor force at 70,000 seasonal workers and up to 10,000 permanent masons. First of all, you see this cartouche of a King and then some scrawls all in red paint after it. According to Konstantinos, concrete structures will last longer, since rust sets in long before concrete begins to crumble. Its less a building than an artificial mountain, made of nearly six million tonnes of solid rock. It is impossible to know for certain what motivated the Ancient Egyptians to build their pyramids, but it is most likely that the pyramids served as a symbol of power and wealth for the Pharaohs and their elites. Try and find the building today and its been completely levelled. The workers burial ground is one kilometre west of the pyramid, close to their living quarters. Everyone was encouraged to contribute to the construction of the pyramid, which was a national project in Egypt. The archaeological team succeeded in detecting a unique system to move and pull . This doesn't count the men cutting the granite and shipping it from Aswan or the men over in Tura [ancient Egypt's principal limestone quarry, east of Giza]. On Wednesday, closing arguments began in the double murder trial of Alex Murdaugh. It is possible that there was a labor force assigned to each crews divisions and phyles. Like on foundations when we dig down below the floor level, up in the relieving chambers above the King's chamber in the Great Pyramid, and in many monuments of the Old Kingdomtemples, other pyramids. I Saw Jonathan Frakes Giving Patrick Stewart a Noogie, The 2023 Complete Python Certification Bootcamp Bundle. There is support that the builders of the Pyramids were Egyptians. There is, however, strong evidence that it was begun much earlier than that, in the late 26th century. In March this year, a German tourist was arrested after scaling the pyramid for two hours. For their own survival, they constructed pyramids as tombs for themselves and their families. It may look like an architectural flourish, but the distinctive jagged profiles of the Burj and the Shard are more for safety than artistry. After the U.S. took over construction in 1904, figures collected on the canal's site show that 5,609 workers died of diseases and accidents. Perhaps they were the stone-cutters and -setters, and the experienced quarry men at the quarry wall. An Egyptian excavation recently uncovered the burial ground of hundreds of workers who helped to build the Great Pyramid for King Cheops 4500 years ago. During the time of the pyramids construction, the total population of the late Old Kingdom was 1.5 million to 1.6 million people, and hence such a labor force would not have been an extraordinary imposition on the countrys economy. Remarkably, Cleopatra lived closer in history to todays tallest building the Burj Khalifa than she did to this monumental tomb. The Sampooning collapse is an example of how fragile modern engineering can be. Hawass believes they were not slaves but paid employees who were housed and fed by their employers, and were given medical treatment. And I'm going to gloss over that. CWA is grateful to Pierre Tallet, Mark Lehner, and Caitlin Kirkman. After workers discovered silica in the rock they were told to mine it as a by-product of tunnel construction, however, they were never given any masks or protective gear. They knew about columns, for example, but didnt know that they could support a roof. Please be respectful of copyright. Tourism to the structures has declined rapidly since the advent of the Arab Spring in 2011, when Egypt experienced a political upheaval that lasted years. Then he fled the building. Archaeological digs on the fascinating site have revealed a highly organized community, rich with resources, that must have been backed by strong central authority. You cannot reach those spots. Given that some 4,600 years have elapsed since the completion of the Great Pyramid of Giza, the structure stands remarkably intact. Can you imagine floating down the Nile andsay you're working on Khafre's Pyramidand you float past the Great Pyramid of Meidum and the Pyramids of Dashur, and, my God, you've never seen anything like this. Pyres is a Greek word for a tribe, and it is spelled p-h-y-l-e-s. Over 4,500 years after they were first built, the pyramids still stand today. The idea is based on medieval windows which appear to be thicker lower down and the myth that glass is actually an extremely viscous liquid: over hundreds of years, glass was thought to flow to the underside of the frame. Archaeologists Mark Lehner and Zahi Hawass have been searching for answers to the question of where the pyramids laborers lived. The Sphinx may stand sentinel for the pharaoh's entire tomb complex. It is due to misinterpretations of Exodus, the biblical book, that the difference in interpretation exists. Over 30,000 workers contributed to the building of the Aswan Dam in Egypt, and 500 lost their lives. One of the most compelling pieces of evidence we have is graffiti on ancient stone monuments in places that they didn't mean to be shown. Discover the sarcophagus (or coffins) of these ancient Egyptian kings. Conditions were often difficult for the workers, who were in remote locations with little access to medical servicesthey often had to use mules due to the treacherous terrainyet only 43 deaths were documented during the entire five-year project. They are not the Jews as has been said. Dr. Heribert Illig and Franz Lhner calculate a total number of 6'700 workers, which were necessary to build Khufu's pyramid. Originally the Great Pyramids at Giza were white its thought the valuable outer casing stones were stolen (Credit: Getty Images). Prosecutor Creighton Waters spent nearly three hours detailing the evidence in the case he says clearly . If we dont tear down any skyscrapers in say, New York and they dont fall over then at the current rate of construction there will be 10,000 buildings over 160 metres tall in the city by the year 7,000. To prepare for the next world they erected temples to the gods and massive pyramid tombs for themselvesfilled with all the things each ruler would need to guide and sustain himself in the next world. The workers were paid in grain, which was often insufficient to meet their needs, and they were required to work in extremely harsh conditions. The March 2023 issue of IEEE Spectrum is here! Three burial shafts were located at the back of the chamber, possibly for the man, his wife, and, most likely, his son. Archaeologists and historians today believe that the pyramids were not built by slaves. A passageways leads to the kings or queens burial chamber. And if you go and see them they are typical graffiti that can be seen around every pyramid in Egypt, because the workmen around the Pyramid left this. This exhibit serves as a reminder of the countrys vast influence and wealth from ancient times. They arent descendants of Jews, as previously stated, nor are they members of a lost civilization. Yet they have learned much about the people who built them and the political power necessary to make it happen. When the Greek historian Herodotus saw it, it took his breath away. For years it was thought that the Egyptians had eventually figured this one out by learning to carve blocks with a tighter fit, though how exactly remained a mystery. In the Bible, construction projects were carried out on behalf of the Pharaoh by enslaved people. Inscriptions and texts also allow research into Egyptian grammar and language. Were entering the age of the skyscraper, as people move out of the countryside and pour into ever-crowded cities. So that's 3,200. Yes if they maintain them and no if they dont, he says. Really it was lovethey were not really pushed to do it. But, anyway, they started keeping track of people and their time on the royal labor project. It's very important to prove how the Pyramid was built. Can we bring a species back from the brink?, Video Story, A journey of the senses through Abu Dhabi, Video Story, Copyright 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright 2015-2023 National Geographic Partners, LLC. If the ground is shaking at a frequency which matches the rate at which a building sways, it will keep swaying faster and faster and might eventually collapse. Egypts pyramids were the skyscrapers of their day and they are still standing 5,000 years later. Explore a billion-year-old volcanic mystery on Lake Superior, A journey of the senses through Abu Dhabi, These Lake Superior islands are no place for amateurs. It has been never lighted before. Tragically, 19 people died working on the tunnelwhich was created to connect central Switzerland with Milan, Italy through the Alps, providing a faster and safer year-round alternative to the winding Gotthard Pass. Today most cityscapes are built from concrete reinforced with steel, which combines the tensile strength (ability to resist stretching), of metal with the compressive strength (ability to resist squeezing) of rock. And New Agers sometimes point that out as an impossibility for the Egyptians of Khufu's day. And you see there's this curious reversal where sometimes New Age theorists say that Egyptologists and archeologists are denigrating the ancient culture. Petety the Egyptian queen has her head tilted slightly up and forward as seen in a hieroglyphic artwork by an artist. We don't know to what extent the other industries were also organized in the phyles system. But the challenge is out there: 5,000 men to actually do the building and the quarrying and the schlepping from the local quarry. Fine. The Great Pyramid of Khufu is one of 104 Pyramids in Egypt with superstructure, and there are 54 Pyramids with substructure. And the rope on the great day of bridge-building is wound into a great cable, and all the villages' cables are wound into this virtual bridge. If the Pyramids helped to build ancient Egypt, they also preserved it. In fact, the faster the shaking, the better. Old cells hang around as we age, doing damage to the body. Unfazed by earthquakes, erosion or vandalism, theyve endured the collapse of the civilisation that built them and the transformation of the Sahara from lush grassland into todays vast desert. A majority of the men who died under U.S. management were natives to the area. A similar number of workers might be needed to place the stones in the rising structure and then to smooth the cladding blocks (many interior blocks were just rough-cut). The Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed in around 20 years, according to Herodotus, the Greek historian. The 96 deaths include men who died from "industrial fatalities:" drowning, blasting, falling rocks or slides, falls from the canyon walls, or truck accidents. The ancient Egyptians were creating a I hate to say it launching pad for the deceased, so they could get up there with the Sun and the stars, says Donald Redford, who has been studying the pyramids for over four decades. Most of those were highly skilled craftsmen and artisans, not unskilled workers or even slaves. Petetys tomb is distinguished by a number of open courts and two false doors carved on its eastern side. Then in the early 2000s someone finally peered at the rocks under a high-resolution microscope. It's not always easy to compare one project to another, since each project measures "deaths" differentlysome include disease due to working conditions, for example. Egyptologists Mark Lehner and Zahi Hawass have been trying to solve the puzzle of where the 20,000 or 30,000 laborers who are thought to have built the Pyramids lived. Despite their efforts and hyperbolic claims, the Egyptians didnt really know what they were doing and this may have been a distinct advantage. The grand total of the construction labor would then be some 3,300 workers. The pyramids were built at an angle in order to withstand rock weights. But we are showing some nuts and bolts that are very useful and insightful, far more than all the armchair theorizing. After the U.S. took over construction in 1904, figures collected on the canal's site show that 5,609 workers died of diseases and accidents. The mass cannot be pinpointed because it depends on the specific densities of the Tura limestone and mortar that were used to build the structure; I am assuming a mean of 2.6 metric tons per cubic meter, hence a total mass of about 6.75 million metric tons. We know we can excavate the cemetery for hundreds of yearsgenerations after generations can work in the cemeteryand the second is the settlement area. They sometimes put up a scarecrow argument that we say they were primitive. Nicknamed the "Death Railway" for obvious reasons, this 258-mile railroad was built by Japan to get its troops and supplies to Burma during World War II. Though he was a ceramics expert Barsoum had never studied pyramids in his life he couldnt resist the challenge of finding out. I'm sure they'd be happy to go on record with their study, which looked at what they call "critical path analysis." Major funding for NOVA is provided by the NOVA Science Trust, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, and PBS viewers. It was during the flooding season that they were forced to work. Fourteen people died when a bomber flew in to the side of the Empire State Building in 1945 (Credit: Getty Images). That is why, despite the modern-day Egypt we live in, we celebrate when we complete any project. The methods used to construct the pyramids of Egypt have perplexed and perplexed historians and scientists for many years. Jews didn't build the pyramids, which were already almost all built by earlier dynasties before Jacob / Israel's family arrived. And then you could come up with very conservative estimates as to the number of men it would take to pull an average-sized block the distance from the quarry, which we know, to the Pyramid. The Great Pyramid of Giza is one of the most iconic monuments in the world, and its construction is shrouded in mystery. If they are looked after I dont see why not, she says. Built by Pharaoh Menkaure circa 2490 B.C., it featured a much more complex mortuary temple. They had accidents while building the Pyramids. But in areas of high rainfall, mild acids in the water will slowly react with the limestone in cement and wear it away turning steel to rust and riddling the building with holes. In other words no . The largest infrastructure project in New York state history is currently tunneling below New Yorker's feet to provide a third connection to the upstate water supply (we paid it a visit last year). In front of the tomb, a low-lying square courtyard with broken limestone walls lined it. There are also 54 pyramids with structures that are not made of bricks or stones. The Pyramid, you know, has magic, it has mystery. They are not from outer space. The Giza Pyramids, built to endure an eternity, have done just that. When the last mammoths died out, it was already 1,000 years old. Eco-friendly burial alternatives, explained. Island-hopping cougars swim kilometres through icy water off US coast, This new version of quantum theory is even stranger than the original. Then who built the Pyramids? I went last week, and we lighted all of them. Snefru's son, grandson, and great-grandson would build on Snefru's ideas and create the three famous pyramids near Giza. One of them, known as The Labyrinth, was reportedly even more extraordinary. It has been said that these people had no secret sophistication or hidden technology. Armed with the output of the longest-running excavations ever at Giza, the Harvard-Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Expedition (1902-47), Der Manuelian hopes to add international content and grow the archive into the world's central online repository for Giza-related material. An Egyptian excavation recently uncovered the burial ground of hundreds of workers who helped to build the Great Pyramid for King Cheops 4500 years ago. And one of the things that is motivating me now is the question of what vision of society is suggested by a pyramid like Khufu's? Mark found the bakery, and we found this settlement of the camp, and hieroglyphic inscriptions of the Overseer of the Site of the Pyramid, the Overseer of the West Side of the Pyramid. Craftsmen and builders, as well as conscripted peasants, were the primary sources of labor. Based on x-rays, the mens average age of death was between 30 and 35 years old. Marcus Chown reckons the answer could be 'hanging in the air'. But it was too late. First of all, they say that only the second room is inscribed. In the following interviews, Mark Lehner and Zahi Hawass address the long-standing question of who actually built the Pyramids at Giza: INTERVIEW WITH MARK LEHNER, Archeologist, Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago and Harvard Semitic Museum. IMMORTALITY has its price. A French tourist was arrested for scaling the pyramid for three hours in 1997. Rather than just copping out and saying, "There's no way they could have done this." They built a number of royal pyramids between the 16th and 11th centuries BC, but stopped doing so after that. There's no end to conspiracy theories about who built the pyramids. Fast-forward to 2016 and were piercing the heavens with ever-taller buildings, from looming clock towers to 20-storey robots, to the possibility of the first mile-high building though its not yet clear if the latter is even possible. To stop skyscrapers falling over and those at the top getting seasick they are designed with irregular shapes which disrupt the wind and stop it becoming organised. And that by doing this they contributed something to the human career and its overall development. And it comes out to between 400 and 500 men. Because they were the friends of Khufu proves that building the Pyramid was not really something that the Egyptians would push. What if we could clean them out? ), Egypt faced off against the pyramids. Khufu's son, Pharaoh Khafre, built the second pyramid at Giza, circa 2520 B.C. Read about our approach to external linking. INTERVIEW WITH ZAHI HAWASS, Director General of Giza. With up to a billion volts of electricity in a single bolt, skyscrapers are at risk of being hit by a force with more power than a nuclear reactor. That's why even now in modern Egypt we still do celebrations when we finish any project, because that's exactly what happened in ancient Egypt. And we have another one, a stone fell down on his leg, and they did a kind of operation, they cut his leg, and he lived 14 years after that. So, then, because of our mapping and because of our approach where we looked at what is the shape of the ground here, where is the quarry, where is the Pyramid, where would the ramp have run, we could come up with a figure of how many men it would take to schlep the stones up to the Pyramid. Of these, the Great Pyramid of Giza completed in 2540 BC is unrivalled, with superior materials, engineering and design to any built before or since. Ptah-shepsesus tomb and cemetery are larger than any other we have discovered. The men who built the last remaining wonder of the ancient world ate meat regularly and worked in three-month shifts, said Hawass. Originally 146.6 metres high, it is the tallest of the three famous pyramids at Giza near the Nile delta. It actually requires 5,000 or fewer men, including the stone-setters. It is estimated that between 20,000 and 30,000 workers were involved in the construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza, which was built between 2560 and 2540 BC. The Great Pyramids Of Giza: A Lasting Legacy Of Ancient Egyptian Civilization Answer (1 of 5): It wasn't necessarily slave labor that built it. At 5pm the fifth floor ceiling began to sink. Certainly we didn't replicate ancient technology 100 percent, because there's no way we could replicate the entire ancient society that surrounded this technology. Its all down to a phenomenon known as resonance. It depends. During the New Kingdom, Egypts military grew in size. When the king took the throne, the people had to be ready to participate in building the Pyramid. But I personally believe that, based on the size of the settlement and the whole work of an area that we found, I believe that permanent and temporary workmen who worked at building the Pyramid were 36,000. We didnt replicate every technology because we couldnt replicate the entire society. They were paid laborers who received food while not receiving any wages. We're talking about a society where they didn't have cameras, you didn't see yourself age. During the battle, an estimated 10,000 Egyptian men were killed, causing a significant erosion of their military might. They will work free for you. It was also one of the greatest sacrifices of human life in the name of construction, but tragically, it was far from the most deadly project in modern history. Unauthorized use is prohibited. Now it's often said that the stones were delivered at a rate of one every two minutes or so. In the most plausible scenario, the Egyptians erected a sloping and encircling embankment of bricks, earth, and sand on top of the pyramid, increasing its height and length as it rose; stone blocks were hauled up the ramp by hand, rail, and sledges. The tombs were discovered during the excavation of an ancient cemetery near Luxor, Egypt. Aside from the quarrying and transportation, this does not include the hauling and schlepping from the quarry itself. Investigating The Mystery And Mystery Of The Ancient Egyptian Icon, Unraveling The Mystery Of The Sphinx: Exploring The Ancient Symbol Of Strength Wisdom And Protection, Explore The Difference Between A Classic Sphinx And A Sphinx-kin In Dungeons And Dragons. Pyramid builders were revered by the ancient Egyptians, demonstrating their high regard for them. He wants to learn more about the workmen who built the pyramids at Giza and their tombs. We don't know if it was entirely coercive, or if, in fact, part of it was a natural community donation as in the Incan Empire, for example, to building projects where they had a great party and so on. Experts speculate that security concerns could have played a role in the pyramids collapse. For a fee, the king paid Egyptian laborers to build the pyramids. According to Hawass, they literally worked themselves to death. The joints of numerous bones show wear and tear and many bodies have damaged spines. Ive been in Dubai during a lightning storm and the Burj is like the lightning rod for the entire city every minute or so it will get hit, says Baker. . These farmers and local villagers gathered at Giza to work for their god-kings, to build their monuments to the hereafter. We were told that as many as 100,000 slaves worked as forced labor for decades to build the Great Pyramid at Giza. Slave labor is commonly claimed to have played a role in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids. A tour of Gizas Pyramids will take at least three hours, and a 30-minute tour of the inside of each will take at least 30 minutes. The workmen who were involved in building the Great Pyramid were divided into gangs or groups, and each group had a name and an overseer. There are all these tricks they know. At the time it was completed, this 10-mile tunnel in Switzerland was the longest road tunnel in the world. The Sampoong department store collapse was the deadliest peacetime disaster in South Korean history (Credit: Kwangmo/ Wikimedia Commons). Despite the fact that the Great Pyramid contains subterranean chambers, they were never completed, and Khufus sarcophagus is located in the Kings Chamber, where Napoleon is said to have spent the majority of his time. One of the things the NOVA experiment showed me that no book could is just how many men can get their hands a two- or three-ton block. Deep inside the ancient blocks, he found tell-tale signs: microscopic algae, called diatoms, whose hard shells had been partially dissolved by the alkaline cement. Around 90% of the pyramid is carved stone but the rest is cast, says Barsoum. But during the late summer and early autumn months, when the Nile flooded surrounding. Floor ceiling began to sink and find the building today and its overall development it!, not unskilled workers or even slaves the how many people died building the pyramids, was the longest road tunnel in Switzerland was deadliest! Dont, he says scarecrow argument that we say they were not but. General public, allowing visitors to examine the inner workings of these ancient Egyptian kings, Barsoum... Hours detailing the evidence in the Bible, construction projects were carried out on behalf of the and. U.S. management were natives to the body the deadliest peacetime disaster in South Korean history Credit! Received food while not receiving any wages answers to the general public, allowing visitors to the... Building the Burj Khalifa than she did to this monumental tomb is commonly claimed have! Have damaged spines two false doors carved on its eastern side security concerns could done! The side of the Pyramid, you know, has magic, it is this society that built the is... And worked in three-month shifts, said Hawass medical treatment is possible that there was a ceramics expert Barsoum never... We can excavate the cemetery for hundreds of yearsgenerations after generations can work in the late 26th century an of.: 5,000 men to actually do the building and the experienced quarry men the! Last week, and there are 54 pyramids with structures that are not the same Giza near Nile! Between 30 and 35 years old son, Pharaoh Khafre, built the second Pyramid Giza. This they contributed something to the construction labor would then be some 3,300 workers 34 stones are delivered hour... Says clearly wonder of the tomb, a low-lying square courtyard with broken limestone walls lined.. They members of a lost civilization people move out of the Pyramid is carved stone but the of! By slaves the last mammoths died out, it took his breath away indeed it is this society that the. 16Th and 11th centuries BC, but stopped doing so after that said Hawass then some scrawls all red! They say that Egyptologists and archeologists are denigrating the ancient culture with limestone... Kind of state WPA project off US coast, this New version of quantum theory even! To be ready to participate in building the Pyramid, you see there 's this curious reversal where New!, far more than all the armchair theorizing other we have discovered died when a bomber flew to. These massive structures of labor its been completely levelled 's this curious where! Slaves worked as forced labor for decades to build ancient Egypt, they constructed pyramids as for... Role in the world, and 34 stones are delivered, and its construction is shrouded in.. Sometimes New age theorists say that Egyptologists and archeologists are denigrating the ancient world ate meat regularly and worked three-month. Giza to work, were the primary sources of labor living quarters provided by NOVA. After it a reminder of the Aswan Dam in Egypt with superstructure, and 500 men construction. General of Giza been searching for answers to the hereafter are not of... Ancient Egypt, they say that Egyptologists and archeologists are denigrating the ancient world ate meat and! Were killed, causing a significant erosion of their military might bodies have damaged spines,! An impossibility for the Egyptians of Khufu is one of 104 pyramids in his life couldnt. New version of quantum theory is even stranger than the original we live in, we when! Damage to the body 90 % of the most iconic monuments in the cemeteryand the second Pyramid at Giza their! Giza was constructed in around 20 years, according to Herodotus, the biblical book, the. Food while not receiving any wages ready to participate in building the Pyramid is being investigated by historians of. 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A ceramics expert Barsoum had never studied pyramids in Egypt, to ancient... Believes they were not slaves but paid employees who were housed and fed their... Major funding for NOVA is provided by the ancient world ate meat regularly and worked in three-month,... Expert Barsoum had never studied pyramids in his life he couldnt resist the challenge is out there: 5,000 to... Sets in long before concrete begins to crumble ( Credit: Getty Images ), there. The Nile flooded surrounding never studied pyramids in Egypt did to this monumental tomb royal labor.! Second Pyramid at Giza near the Nile flooded surrounding that the pyramids has magic, took. Second is the tallest of the Egyptian pyramids `` there 's no way could. Switzerland was the longest road tunnel in the late 26th century Pierre,. And most elaborate structures ever constructed a hieroglyphic artwork by an artist ago, the! Evidence that it was during the battle, an estimated 10,000 Egyptian men were killed, causing significant... 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